Forrester, N. L. et al. Evolution and spread of Venezuelan equine encephalitis complex alphavirus in the Americas. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 11, e0005693 (2017).

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Estrada-Franco, J. G. et al. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, southern Mexico. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 10, 2113–2121 (2004).

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Kubes, V. & Rios, F. A. The causative agent of infectious equine encephalomyelitis in Venezuela. Science 90, 20–21 (1939).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Oberste, M. S. et al. Association of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus subtype IE with two equine epizootics in Mexico. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 59, 100–107 (1998).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Barrera, R. et al. Contrasting sylvatic foci of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus in northern South America. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 67, 324–334 (2002).

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Brault, A. C., Powers, A. M. & Weaver, S. C. Vector infection determinants of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus reside within the E2 envelope glycoprotein. J. Virol. 76, 6387–6392 (2002).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Ferro, C. et al. Natural enzootic vectors of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, Magdalena Valley, Colombia. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 9, 49–54 (2003).

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Kramer, L. D. & Scherer, W. F. Vector competence of mosquitoes as a marker to distinguish Central American and Mexican epizootic from enzootic strains of Venezuelan encephalitis virus. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 25, 336–346 (1976).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Navarro, J. C. & Weaver, S. C. Molecular phylogeny of the Vomerifer and Pedroi Groups in the Spissipes Section of the subgenus Culex (Melanoconion). J. Med. Entomol. 41, 575–581 (2004).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Rivas, F. et al. Epidemic Venezuelan equine encephalitis in La Guajira, Colombia, 1995. J. Infect. Dis. 175, 828–832 (1997).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Franz, D. R. et al. Clinical recognition and management of patients exposed to biological warfare agents. Clin. Lab Med. 21, 435–473 (2001).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Hanson, R. P. et al. Arbovirus infections of laboratory workers. Extent of problem emphasizes the need for more effective measures to reduce hazards. Science 158, 1283–1286 (1967).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Phelps, A. L. et al. Susceptibility and lethality of western equine encephalitis virus in Balb/c mice when infected by the aerosol route. Viruses 9, https://doi.org/10.3390/v9070163 (2017).

Reed, D. S. et al. Aerosol exposure to western equine encephalitis virus causes fever and encephalitis in cynomolgus macaques. J. Infect. Dis. 192, 1173–1182 (2005).

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Roy, C. J. et al. Pathogenesis of aerosolized Eastern Equine Encephalitis virus infection in guinea pigs. Virol. J. 6, 170 (2009).

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Williams, J. A. et al. Eastern equine encephalitis virus rapidly infects and disseminates in the brain and spinal cord of cynomolgus macaques following aerosol challenge. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 16, e0010081 (2022).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Pittman, P. R. et al. Long-term duration of detectable neutralizing antibodies after administration of live-attenuated VEE vaccine and following booster vaccination with inactivated VEE vaccine. Vaccine 14, 337–343 (1996).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Alevizatos, A. C., McKinney, R. W. & Feigin, R. D. Live, attenuated Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus vaccine. Clin. Eff. Man. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 16, 762–768 (1967).

CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Casamassima, A. C., Hess, L. W. & Marty, A. TC-83 Venezuelan equine encephalitis vaccine exposure during pregnancy. Teratology 36, 287–289 (1987).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Guzman-Teran, C., Calderon-Rangel, A., Rodriguez-Morales, A. & Mattar, S. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus: the problem is not over for tropical America. Ann. Clin. Microbiol. Antimicrob. 19, 19 (2020).

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Luethy, D. Eastern, Western, and Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis and West Nile viruses: clinical and public health considerations. Vet. Clin. North Am. Equine Pr. 39, 99–113 (2023).


Google Scholar
 

Weaver, S. C., Bellew, L. A. & Rico-Hesse, R. Phylogenetic analysis of alphaviruses in the Venezuelan equine encephalitis complex and identification of the source of epizootic viruses. Virology 191, 282–290 (1992).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Anishchenko, M. et al. Venezuelan encephalitis emergence mediated by a phylogenetically predicted viral mutation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 103, 4994–4999 (2006).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Moncayo, A. C. et al. Vector competence of eastern and western forms of Psorophora columbiae (Diptera: Culicidae) mosquitoes for enzootic and epizootic Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 78, 413–421 (2008).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Ortiz, D. I., Anishchenko, M. & Weaver, S. C. Susceptibility of Psorophora confinnis (Diptera: Culicidae) to infection with epizootic (subtype IC) and enzootic (subtype ID) Venezuelan Equine encephalitis viruses. J. Med. Entomol. 42, 857–863 (2005).

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Sudia, W. D. et al. Epidemic Venezuelan equine encephalitis in North America in 1971: vector studies. Am. J. Epidemiol. 101, 17–35 (1975).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Kafai, N. M. et al. Entry receptor LDLRAD3 is required for Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus peripheral infection and neurotropism leading to pathogenesis in mice. Cell Rep. 42, 112946 (2023).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Ma, B., Huang, C., Ma, J., Xiang, Y. & Zhang, X. Structure of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus with its receptor LDLRAD3. Nature 598, 677–681 (2021).

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Ma, H. et al. LDLRAD3 is a receptor for Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. Nature 588, 308–314 (2020).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Adeyinka, O. S. et al. nsP2 protease inhibitor blocks the replication of New World alphaviruses and offer protection in mice. ACS Infect. Dis. 11, 181–196 (2025).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

de Groot, R. J., Hardy, W. R., Shirako, Y. & Strauss, J. H. Cleavage-site preferences of Sindbis virus polyproteins containing the non-structural proteinase. Evidence for temporal regulation of polyprotein processing in vivo. EMBO J. 9, 2631–2638 (1990).

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Lark, T., Keck, F. & Narayanan, A. Interactions of alphavirus nsP3 protein with host proteins. Front. Microbiol. 8, 2652 (2017).

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Shirako, Y. & Strauss, J. H. Regulation of Sindbis virus RNA replication: uncleaved P123 and nsP4 function in minus-strand RNA synthesis, whereas cleaved products from P123 are required for efficient plus-strand RNA synthesis. J. Virol. 68, 1874–1885 (1994).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Li, C. et al. mRNA capping by Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus nsP1: functional characterization and implications for antiviral research. J. Virol. 89, 8292–8303 (2015).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Hoffka, G. et al. Self-inhibited state of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) nsP2 cysteine protease: a crystallographic and molecular dynamics analysis. J. Mol. Biol. 435, 168012 (2023).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Kim, D. Y., Atasheva, S., Frolova, E. I. & Frolov, I. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus nsP2 protein regulates packaging of the viral genome into infectious virions. J. Virol. 87, 4202–4213 (2013).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Foy, N. J., Akhrymuk, M., Shustov, A. V., Frolova, E. I. & Frolov, I. Hypervariable domain of nonstructural protein nsP3 of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus determines cell-specific mode of virus replication. J. Virol. 87, 7569–7584 (2013).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Kril, V. et al. Alphavirus nsP3 organizes into tubular scaffolds essential for infection and the cytoplasmic granule architecture. Nat. Commun. 15, 8106 (2024).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Tan, Y. B. et al. Crystal structures of alphavirus nonstructural protein 4 (nsP4) reveal an intrinsically dynamic RNA-dependent RNA polymerase fold. Nucleic Acids Res. 50, 1000–1016 (2022).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Kielian, M., Chanel-Vos, C. & Liao, M. Alphavirus entry and membrane fusion. Viruses 2, 796–825 (2010).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Leung, J. Y., Ng, M. M. & Chu, J. J. Replication of alphaviruses: a review on the entry process of alphaviruses into cells. Adv. Virol. 2011, 249640 (2011).

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Mukhopadhyay, S. et al. Mapping the structure and function of the E1 and E2 glycoproteins in alphaviruses. Structure 14, 63–73 (2006).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Mayne, J. T., Rice, C. M., Strauss, E. G., Hunkapiller, M. W. & Strauss, J. H. Biochemical studies of the maturation of the small Sindbis virus glycoprotein E3. Virology 134, 338–357 (1984).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Sjoberg, M., Lindqvist, B. & Garoff, H. Activation of the alphavirus spike protein is suppressed by bound E3. J. Virol. 85, 5644–5650 (2011).

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Liljestrom, P. & Garoff, H. Internally located cleavable signal sequences direct the formation of Semliki Forest virus membrane proteins from a polyprotein precursor. J. Virol. 65, 147–154 (1991).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Welch, W. J. & Sefton, B. M. Two small virus-specific polypeptides are produced during infection with Sindbis virus. J. Virol. 29, 1186–1195 (1979).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Zhang, R. et al. 4.4 A cryo-EM structure of an enveloped alphavirus Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. EMBO J. 30, 3854–3863 (2011).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Parker, M. D. et al. Antibody to the E3 glycoprotein protects mice against lethal venezuelan equine encephalitis virus infection. J. Virol. 84, 12683–12690 (2010).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Atasheva, S., Garmashova, N., Frolov, I. & Frolova, E. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus capsid protein inhibits nuclear import in Mammalian but not in mosquito cells. J. Virol. 82, 4028–4041 (2008).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Negi, V., Miller, A. S. & Kuhn, R. J. Advances in viroporin function and structure: a comparative analysis of alphavirus 6k with well-characterized viroporins. Viruses 17, 868 (2025).

Gardner, C. L. et al. Eastern and Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses differ in their ability to infect dendritic cells and macrophages: impact of altered cell tropism on pathogenesis. J. Virol. 82, 10634–10646 (2008).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Trabalza, A. et al. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus glycoprotein pseudotyping confers neurotropism to lentiviral vectors. Gene Ther. 20, 723–732 (2013).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Hollidge, B. S. et al. Toll-like receptor 4 mediates blood-brain barrier permeability and disease in C3H mice during Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus infection. Virulence 12, 430–443 (2021).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Salimi, H. et al. Encephalitic alphaviruses exploit caveola-mediated transcytosis at the blood-brain barrier for central nervous system entry. mBio 11, https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.02731-19 (2020).

Charles, P. C., Walters, E., Margolis, F. & Johnston, R. E. Mechanism of neuroinvasion of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus in the mouse. Virology 208, 662–671 (1995).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Weaver, S. C. et al. Re-emergence of epidemic Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis in South America. VEE Study Group. Lancet 348, 436–440 (1996).

CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Aguilar, P. V. et al. Endemic Venezuelan equine encephalitis in the Americas: hidden under the dengue umbrella. Future Virol. 6, 721–740 (2011).

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Steele, K. E. & Twenhafel, N. A. REVIEW PAPER: pathology of animal models of alphavirus encephalitis. Vet. Pathol. 47, 790–805 (2010).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Taylor, K., Kolokoltsova, O., Ronca, S. E., Estes, M. & Paessler, S. Live, attenuated Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus vaccine (TC83) causes persistent brain infection in mice with non-functional alphabeta T-Cells. Front. Microbiol. 8, 81 (2017).

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Henderson, B. E., Chappell, W. A., Johnston, J. G. Jr & Sudia, W. D. Experimental infection of horses with three strains of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus. I. Clinical and virological studies. Am. J. Epidemiol. 93, 194–205 (1971).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Mackenzie, R. M., de Siger, J. & Parra, D. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus: comparison of infectivity and virulence of strains V-38 and P676 in donkeys. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 25, 494–499 (1976).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Greene, I. P. et al. Envelope glycoprotein mutations mediate equine amplification and virulence of epizootic Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. J. Virol. 79, 9128–9133 (2005).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

George, J. et al. Prior exposure to Zika virus significantly enhances peak dengue-2 viremia in rhesus macaques. Sci. Rep. 7, 10498 (2017).

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Valiant, W. G. et al. Zika convalescent macaques display delayed induction of anamnestic cross-neutralizing antibody responses after dengue infection. Emerg. Microbes Infect. 7, 130 (2018).

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Valiant, W. G. et al. Human serum with high neutralizing antibody titres against both Zika and dengue virus shows delayed in vitro antibody dependent enhancement of dengue virus infection. Open Forum Infect. Dis. 5, ofy151 (2018).

Valiant, W. G. et al. Simultaneous coinfection of macaques with Zika and dengue viruses does not enhance acute plasma viremia but leads to activation of monocyte subsets and biphasic release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Sci. Rep. 9, 7877 (2019).

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Burke, C. W. et al. Therapeutic monoclonal antibody treatment protects nonhuman primates from severe Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus disease after aerosol exposure. PLoS Pathog. 15, e1008157 (2019).

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Paessler, S. et al. Alpha-beta T cells provide protection against lethal encephalitis in the murine model of VEEV infection. Virology 367, 307–323 (2007).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Yun, N. E. et al. CD4 + T cells provide protection against acute lethal encephalitis caused by Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. Vaccine 27, 4064–4073 (2009).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Kafai, N. M. et al. Neutralizing antibodies protect mice against Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus aerosol challenge. J. Exp. Med. 219, https://doi.org/10.1084/jem.20212532 (2022).

Tretyakova, I. et al. Venezuelan equine encephalitis vaccine with rearranged genome resists reversion and protects non-human primates from viremia after aerosol challenge. Vaccine 38, 3378–3386 (2020).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Elvin, S. J., Bennett, A. M. & Phillpotts, R. J. Role for mucosal immune responses and cell-mediated immune functions in protection from airborne challenge with Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. J. Med. Virol. 67, 384–393 (2002).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Berge, T. O. B., I. S. & Tigertt, W. D. Attenuation of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus by in vitro cultivation in guinea-pig heart cells. Am. J. Epidemiol. 73, 209–218 (1961).

Kinney, R. M. et al. Attenuation of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus strain TC-83 is encoded by the 5’-noncoding region and the E2 envelope glycoprotein. J. Virol. 67, 1269–1277 (1993).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Kinney, R. M., Johnson, B. J., Welch, J. B., Tsuchiya, K. R. & Trent, D. W. The full-length nucleotide sequences of the virulent Trinidad donkey strain of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus and its attenuated vaccine derivative, strain TC-83. Virology 170, 19–30 (1989).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

White, L. J., Wang, J. G., Davis, N. L. & Johnston, R. E. Role of alpha/beta interferon in Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus pathogenesis: effect of an attenuating mutation in the 5’ untranslated region. J. Virol. 75, 3706–3718 (2001).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Mecham, J. O. & Trent, D. W. A biochemical comparison of the in vitro replication of a virulent and an avirulent strain of Venezuelan encephalitis virus. J. Gen. Virol. 64, 1111–1119 (1983).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Hyde, J. L. et al. A viral RNA structural element alters host recognition of nonself RNA. Science 343, 783–787 (2014).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Burke, D. S., Ramsburg, H. H. & Edelman, R. Persistence in humans of antibody to subtypes of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis (VEE) virus after immunization with attenuated (TC-83) VEE virus vaccine. J. Infect. Dis. 136, 354–359 (1977).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Ferguson, J. A., Reeves, W. C., Milby, M. M. & Hardy, J. L. Study of homologous and heterologous antibody response in California horses vaccinated with attenuated Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis vaccine (strain TC-83). Am. J. Vet. Res. 39, 371–376 (1978).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Fillis, C. A. & Calisher, C. H. Neutralizing antibody responses of humans and mice to vaccination with Venezuelan encephalitis (TC-83) virus. J. Clin. Microbiol. 10, 544–549 (1979).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Jahrling, P. B. & Stephenson, E. H. Protective efficacies of live attenuated and formaldehyde-inactivated Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus vaccines against aerosol challenge in hamsters. J. Clin. Microbiol. 19, 429–431 (1984).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Hart, M. K., Pratt, W., Panelo, F., Tammariello, R. & Dertzbaugh, M. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus vaccines induce mucosal IgA responses and protection from airborne infection in BALB/c, but not C3H/HeN mice. Vaccine 15, 363–369 (1997).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Phillpotts, R. J. & Wright, A. J. TC-83 vaccine protects against airborne or subcutaneous challenge with heterologous mouse-virulent strains of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. Vaccine 17, 982–988 (1999).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Bennett, A. M., Elvin, S. J., Wright, A. J., Jones, S. M. & Phillpotts, R. J. An immunological profile of Balb/c mice protected from airborne challenge following vaccination with a live attenuated Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus vaccine. Vaccine 19, 337–347 (2000).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Marker, S. C. & Ascher, M. S. Specific in vitro lymphocyte transformation with Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. Cell Immunol. 23, 32–38 (1976).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Jones, L. D., Bennett, A. M., Moss, S. R., Gould, E. A. & Phillpotts, R. J. Cytotoxic T-cell activity is not detectable in Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus-infected mice. Virus Res. 91, 255–259 (2003).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Mathews, J. H., Kinney, R. M., Roehrig, J. T., Barrett, A. D. & Trent, D. W. Murine T-helper cell immune response to recombinant vaccinia-Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. Vaccine 12, 620–624 (1994).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Pedersen, C. E. Jr, Robinson, D. M. & Cole, F. E. Jr. Isolation of the vaccine strain of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus from mosquitoes in Louisiana. Am. J. Epidemiol. 95, 490–496 (1972).

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Turell, M. J., Ludwig, G. V., Kondig, J. & Smith, J. F. Limited potential for mosquito transmission of genetically engineered, live-attenuated Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus vaccine candidates. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 60, 1041–1044 (1999).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Tretyakova, I., Tomai, M., Vasilakos, J. & Pushko, P. Live-attenuated VEEV vaccine delivered by iDNA using microneedles is immunogenic in rabbits. Front. Trop. Dis. 3, https://doi.org/10.3389/fitd.2022.813671 (2022).

Centers, A. et al. V4020 Venezuelan equine encephalitis vaccine: mitigating neuroinvasion and reversion through rational design. Viruses 17, https://doi.org/10.3390/v17081136 (2025).

Johnson, D. M. et al. Advanced safety and genetic stability in mice of a novel DNA-launched Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus vaccine with rearranged structural genes. Vaccines 8, https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines8010114 (2020).

Rossi, S. L. et al. IRES-based Venezuelan equine encephalitis vaccine candidate elicits protective immunity in mice. Virology 437, 81–88 (2013).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Rossi, S. L. et al. IRES-containing VEEV vaccine protects cynomolgus macaques from IE Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus aerosol challenge. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 9, e0003797 (2015).

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Reed, D. S. et al. Combined alphavirus replicon particle vaccine induces durable and cross-protective immune responses against equine encephalitis viruses. J. Virol. 88, 12077–12086 (2014).

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Hart, M. K. et al. Improved mucosal protection against Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus is induced by the molecularly defined, live-attenuated V3526 vaccine candidate. Vaccine 18, 3067–3075 (2000).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Pratt, W. D., Davis, N. L., Johnston, R. E. & Smith, J. F. Genetically engineered, live attenuated vaccines for Venezuelan equine encephalitis: testing in animal models. Vaccine 21, 3854–3862 (2003).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Reed, D. S. et al. Genetically engineered, live, attenuated vaccines protect nonhuman primates against aerosol challenge with a virulent IE strain of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. Vaccine 23, 3139–3147 (2005).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Turell, M. J. & Parker, M. D. Protection of hamsters by Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus candidate. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 78, 328–332 (2008).

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Rao, V., Hinz, M. E., Roberts, B. A. & Fine, D. Environmental hazard assessment of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus vaccine candidate strain V3526. Vaccine 22, 2667–2673 (2004).

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Paessler, S. et al. Replication and clearance of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus from the brains of animals vaccinated with chimeric SIN/VEE viruses. J. Virol. 80, 2784–2796 (2006).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Coates, E. E. et al. Safety and immunogenicity of a trivalent virus-like particle vaccine against western, eastern, and Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses: a phase 1, open-label, dose-escalation, randomised clinical trial. Lancet Infect. Dis. 22, 1210–1220 (2022).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Dupuy, L. C. et al. A DNA vaccine for Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus delivered by intramuscular electroporation elicits high levels of neutralizing antibodies in multiple animal models and provides protective immunity to mice and nonhuman primates. Clin. Vaccin. Immunol. 18, 707–716 (2011).

CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Hannaman, D., Dupuy, L. C., Ellefsen, B. & Schmaljohn, C. S. A Phase 1 clinical trial of a DNA vaccine for Venezuelan equine encephalitis delivered by intramuscular or intradermal electroporation. Vaccine 34, 3607–3612 (2016).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Edelman, R. et al. Evaluation in humans of a new, inactivated vaccine for Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (C-84). J. Infect. Dis. 140, 708–715 (1979).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Tretyakova, I. et al. Novel DNA-launched Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus vaccine with rearranged genome. Vaccine 37, 3317–3325 (2019).

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Paessler, S. & Weaver, S. C. Vaccines for Venezuelan equine encephalitis. Vaccine 27, D80–D85 (2009).

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Kendra, J. A. et al. Ablation of programmed -1 ribosomal frameshifting in Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus results in attenuated neuropathogenicity. J. Virol. 91, https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01766-16 (2017).