Sex hormones mediate the body’s immune response. For example, women mount stronger immune responses to vaccinations than men, possibly because estrogen enhances humoral immunity while testosterone is a suppressor. Concerning COVID-19, data suggest that men and women are equally likely…

Vitamin A is important for the maturation of various cells of the innate immune system. Vitamin A deficiency can impair protective barriers such as the skin and mucosal layers, can weaken the response to vaccination, and might predispose people to…

Vitamin D is a steroid hormone that is a major regulator of immune function and plays a particularly important role in preventing respiratory tract infections. Vitamin D activates the innate immune system, which elicits an early antiviral response. The vitamin…

Nutrition plays an essential role in immune function. Most people living in the United States obtain sufficient protein, carbohydrates, and fats in their diet. However, many people lack essential vitamins and minerals, which must be obtained from our diets since…

While exercise usually supports health, extreme exercise can be detrimental to the immune system in some instances. Studies suggest that people performing moderate endurance exercise experience fewer respiratory illnesses, while athletes performing intense endurance exercise of longer than two hours…

Increasing evidence suggests that the microbiota, the diverse population of bacteria harbored by the human body, plays a key role in immunity. Many studies suggest that short-chain fatty acids derived from the gut microbiota promote the expansion of T-regulatory cells,…